Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs), a powerful family of neural networks that are designed for precisely this purpose. CNN-based architectures are now ubiquitous in the field of computer vision, and have become so dominant that hardly anyone today would develop a commercial application or enter a competition related to image recognition, object detection, or semantic segmentation without building off of this approach.
Modern CNNs, as they are called colloquially owe their design to inspirations from biology, group theory, and a healthy dose of experimental tinkering. In addition to their sample efficiency in achieving accurate models, CNNs tend to be computationally efficient, both because they require fewer parameters than fully-connected architectures and because convolutions are easy to parallelize across GPU cores.